{"id":143167,"date":"2022-10-04T12:02:19","date_gmt":"2022-10-04T10:02:19","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.ufu.de\/the-vietnam-war-and-its-consequences-for-the-environment\/"},"modified":"2025-05-28T10:41:03","modified_gmt":"2025-05-28T08:41:03","slug":"the-vietnam-war-and-its-consequences-for-the-environment","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/www.ufu.de\/en\/the-vietnam-war-and-its-consequences-for-the-environment\/","title":{"rendered":"The Vietnam War and its consequences for the environment"},"content":{"rendered":"<div class=\"wpb-content-wrapper\"><p>[vc_row][vc_column width=&#8221;1\/1&#8243;][vc_row_inner][vc_column_inner column_width_percent=&#8221;100&#8243; gutter_size=&#8221;3&#8243; back_color=&#8221;color-861536&#8243; overlay_alpha=&#8221;50&#8243; shift_x=&#8221;0&#8243; shift_y=&#8221;0&#8243; shift_y_down=&#8221;0&#8243; z_index=&#8221;0&#8243; medium_width=&#8221;0&#8243; mobile_width=&#8221;0&#8243; width=&#8221;1\/1&#8243;][vc_column_text]<\/p>\n<h5>UfU Information | Issue 6 &#8211; October 2022 | Jonas R\u00fcffer<\/h5>\n<p>[\/vc_column_text][\/vc_column_inner][\/vc_row_inner][vc_row_inner][vc_column_inner column_width_percent=&#8221;100&#8243; gutter_size=&#8221;3&#8243; overlay_alpha=&#8221;50&#8243; shift_x=&#8221;0&#8243; shift_y=&#8221;0&#8243; shift_y_down=&#8221;0&#8243; z_index=&#8221;0&#8243; medium_width=&#8221;0&#8243; mobile_width=&#8221;0&#8243; width=&#8221;1\/1&#8243;][vc_column_text]<\/p>\n<h2>The Vietnam War and its consequences for the environment<\/h2>\n<h3>The story of an ecocide<\/h3>\n<p>[\/vc_column_text][\/vc_column_inner][\/vc_row_inner][vc_row_inner][vc_column_inner width=&#8221;2\/3&#8243;][vc_column_text]<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">The Vietnam War ended 47 years ago with the surrender of South Vietnam in 1975. In the conflict, the communist-ruled North Vietnam, supported by the Soviet Union and China, fought against the military-ruled South Vietnam, supported by the USA. During the course of the war, the warring parties engaged in violent clashes. The United States in particular deployed powerful war machinery during the war years and bombed the country extensively. More than 3 million people died in the war. Even many years after the end of the war, people are still falling victim to the consequences of the war, for example through the use of Agent Orange<sup>.1<\/sup> Despite its technological superiority, this war led to the first military defeat in the history of the USA.     <\/p>\n<p>[\/vc_column_text][\/vc_column_inner][vc_column_inner column_width_percent=&#8221;100&#8243; gutter_size=&#8221;3&#8243; back_color=&#8221;color-861536&#8243; overlay_alpha=&#8221;75&#8243; shift_x=&#8221;0&#8243; shift_y=&#8221;0&#8243; shift_y_down=&#8221;0&#8243; z_index=&#8221;0&#8243; medium_width=&#8221;0&#8243; mobile_width=&#8221;0&#8243; width=&#8221;1\/3&#8243;][vc_button button_color=&#8221;color-116455&#8243; radius=&#8221;btn-round&#8221; border_width=&#8221;0&#8243; link=&#8221;url:https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ufu.de%2Fufu-informationen%2F|target:_blank|&#8221;]Back to the issues[\/vc_button][vc_button button_color=&#8221;color-127094&#8243; radius=&#8221;btn-round&#8221; border_width=&#8221;0&#8243; link=&#8221;url:https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ufu.de%2Fufu-informationen%2Fkrieg-vs-umwelt%2F|title:War%20vs.%20nature|&#8221;]Next article in this issue[\/vc_button][\/vc_column_inner][\/vc_row_inner][vc_row_inner][vc_column_inner width=&#8221;1\/2&#8243;][vc_column_text]<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">The war tactics used by the United States against nature and the environment in Vietnam are historically unique. Between 1965 and 1973, approximately 85 percent of U.S. munitions in the Vietnam War were used not against enemy soldiers, but directly against the landscape, agricultural land, water supply or transportation routes. <sup>2<\/sup> The resulting damage to the Vietnamese ecosystem was so great that the term \u201cecocide\u201d was introduced in the scientific community, which will be explained later. In the following, an attempt is made to illustrate environmental destruction in Vietnam using three tactics employed by the United States:  <\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Area bombing<\/li>\n<li>Land clearing<\/li>\n<li>Use of Agent Orange and other herbicides<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>[\/vc_column_text][\/vc_column_inner][vc_column_inner width=&#8221;1\/2&#8243;][vc_single_image media=&#8221;19505&#8243; media_width_percent=&#8221;99&#8243; alignment=&#8221;center&#8221;][\/vc_column_inner][\/vc_row_inner][vc_row_inner][vc_column_inner width=&#8221;1\/1&#8243;][vc_column_text]<\/p>\n<h4 style=\"text-align: left;\"><b>Area bombing<\/b><\/h4>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">The participation of the United States in the Vietnam War was expressed primarily through large-scale aerial bombardments. The aim of the ongoing air raids (more than 900 per week) were strategic targets to prevent the communist government from invading South Vietnam. The mass of bombs dropped by the Americans over Vietnam ranges from 4.5 million tons3<sup>to <\/sup>7 million <sup>tons4<\/sup> to 8 million <sup>tons5<\/sup>, depending on how you look at it and how you count it. Regardless of which figure is correct, the bombing of Vietnam on this scale is unique in history. Never before has a country been attacked with so many bombs from the air<sup>.6<\/sup>    <\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">The attempt to weaken the North Vietnamese government through strategic bombing is now regarded as a failure. The Americans did not succeed in deliberately destroying power stations, factories, tunnels and ammunition depots in order to weaken the North Vietnamese side. This was due to decentralized and divided production processes, extensive tunnel systems, dense forestation and tireless Vietnamese workers who, with support from China and the Soviet Union, quickly restored destroyed infrastructure to working order.  <\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Due to the opaque terrain and the dense vegetation in Vietnam, the American bombing raids increasingly expanded into area bombings, some of which were based only on rough location data and information<sup>.7<\/sup> The resulting destruction of the flora and fauna in Vietnam can no longer be reversed in some cases.<\/p>\n<p>[\/vc_column_text][vc_column_text]<\/p>\n<h4 style=\"text-align: center;\"><b>Bombs used and their damage &#8211; two examples<\/b><\/h4>\n<p>[\/vc_column_text][\/vc_column_inner][\/vc_row_inner][vc_row_inner row_inner_height_percent=&#8221;0&#8243; overlay_color=&#8221;color-211498&#8243; overlay_alpha=&#8221;30&#8243; gutter_size=&#8221;3&#8243; border_color=&#8221;color-211498&#8243; border_style=&#8221;solid&#8221; shift_y=&#8221;0&#8243; z_index=&#8221;0&#8243; css=&#8221;.vc_custom_1664877280478{border-top-width: 2px !important;border-right-width: 2px !important;border-bottom-width: 2px !important;border-left-width: 2px !important;padding-top: 5px !important;padding-right: 5px !important;padding-bottom: 5px !important;padding-left: 5px !important;}&#8221;][vc_column_inner width=&#8221;1\/2&#8243;][vc_column_text]<b>500 Pound Bomb  <\/b><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">This bomb, weighing approx. 227 kg, was one of the most frequently used bombs by the Americans. The crater it created is 9 meters wide and 4.5 meters deep<sup>.12<\/sup> Thousands of these bombs were dropped on Vietnam during the course of the war. <\/p>\n<p>[\/vc_column_text][\/vc_column_inner][vc_column_inner width=&#8221;1\/2&#8243;][vc_column_text]<b>15,000 Pound Bomb &#8211; Daisy Cutter<\/b><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">This largest of the bombs used in Vietnam, weighing approx. 6800 kg, explodes shortly before hitting the ground. It leaves no crater, but destroys everything within a radius of 1.2 hectares. It was often used to quickly create helipads in the Vietnamese jungle<sup>.13<\/sup>  <\/p>\n<p>[\/vc_column_text][\/vc_column_inner][\/vc_row_inner][vc_column_text]<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">It seems impossible to quantify the damage caused by the bombings to the ecosystem, as entire forests were transformed into crater fields. It is estimated that in South Vietnam alone, around 26 million large bomb craters (approx. 10 meters in diameter) were created by explosions<sup>.8<\/sup> Extensive destruction to the vegetation was also caused by shrapnel and bomb fragments from the bombs dropped. More than 8 million <sup>hectares9<\/sup> of forest in South Vietnam are affected. In tropical regions in particular, these injuries to trees lead to fungal infestations and ultimately to the death of the vegetation<sup>.10<\/sup>   <\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">The targeted bombing of live (farm) animals is particularly cruel. As a result of the bombings, more than 100,000 water buffaloes, which are important livestock for the Vietnamese population, were killed. Asian elephants (Elephas Maximus) were also deliberately killed as they were suspected of being part of the military supply chain<sup>.11<\/sup>  <\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Trying to quantify the number of insects and smaller vertebrates killed by the bombing is futile. It is only possible to roughly estimate the damage caused to biodiversity in Vietnam by the immense hail of bombs. <\/p>\n<p>[\/vc_column_text][vc_row_inner row_inner_height_percent=&#8221;0&#8243; overlay_alpha=&#8221;30&#8243; gutter_size=&#8221;3&#8243; border_color=&#8221;color-211498&#8243; border_style=&#8221;solid&#8221; shift_y=&#8221;0&#8243; z_index=&#8221;0&#8243; css=&#8221;.vc_custom_1664877256213{border-top-width: 2px !important;border-right-width: 2px !important;border-bottom-width: 2px !important;border-left-width: 2px !important;padding-top: 10px !important;padding-right: 10px !important;padding-bottom: 10px !important;padding-left: 10px !important;}&#8221;][vc_column_inner width=&#8221;1\/2&#8243;][vc_single_image media=&#8221;19529&#8243; caption=&#8221;yes&#8221; media_width_percent=&#8221;100&#8243; title=&#8221;Dropping a daisy cutter&#8221;][\/vc_column_inner][vc_column_inner width=&#8221;1\/2&#8243;][vc_single_image media=&#8221;19532&#8243; caption=&#8221;yes&#8221; media_width_percent=&#8221;100&#8243; title=&#8221;Explosion of a Daisy Cutter bomb&#8221;][\/vc_column_inner][\/vc_row_inner][vc_row_inner][vc_column_inner width=&#8221;1\/2&#8243;][vc_column_text]<\/p>\n<h4><b>Land clearing<\/b><\/h4>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Land clearing is the term used in the USA to describe a measure in which large areas of vegetation can be cleared with the help of a specially designed bulldozer. The bulldozers, called Rome Plow, weighed around 20 tons and were well armed against mines and other attacks and were able to clear large areas of land within a very short time. Around 200 machines were deployed in South Vietnam during the Vietnam War and cleared an area of around 325 hectares, the equivalent of around 3 percent of the land area of South Vietnam<sup>.14<\/sup>  <\/p>\n<h4><b>Herbicide attacks<\/b><\/h4>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">The term \u201cAgent Orange\u201d is more closely associated with the Vietnam War than any other. The massive use of herbicides as a combat agent during the Vietnam War was so devastating for the Vietnamese environment that the term \u201cecocide\u201d was created to adequately describe the extent of the environmental destruction. <\/p>\n<p>[\/vc_column_text][\/vc_column_inner][vc_column_inner width=&#8221;1\/2&#8243;][vc_single_image media=&#8221;19537&#8243; caption=&#8221;yes&#8221; media_width_percent=&#8221;100&#8243; title=&#8221;A Rome Plow in action&#8221;][\/vc_column_inner][\/vc_row_inner][vc_column_text]<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Ecocide is derived from the Greek word <i>oikos <\/i>(house) and the Latin <i>caedere <\/i>(to destroy, to kill)<sup>.15<\/sup> In other words, the destruction of the house, the basis of life. Since then, this term has been used to describe acts of war that are directed against the ecosystem, environment and livelihood of the other warring party. <\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">In Vietnam&#8217;s densely forested rainforest, American troops were regularly the victims of ambushes by the North Vietnamese army. They used guerrilla tactics, knew the terrain very well and were able to inflict considerable damage on the Americans. Due to the dense forest cover, the air superiority and reconnaissance of the USA was only of limited use. The North Vietnamese troops also had extensive tunnel systems. It was difficult for the Americans to identify bases and supply routes. In order to gain a better overview, Operation Ranch Hand (slogan: Only you can prevent a forest) was launched in addition to area bombing and land clearing. The aim of this operation was to clear the vegetation in order to gain a better view of the terrain.      <\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">The herbicides used by the USA were sprayed on the equivalent of 12 percent of Vietnam&#8217;s total area. Projections of the area of defoliated forests and mangroves vary between 2 and 2.4 million hectares<sup>.16<\/sup> In addition, there is the targeted spraying of arable land in Vietnam. The figures here are less precise and vary between 300,000 hectares and 400,000 hectares<sup>.171<\/sup> A study from 2019, published in the Open Journal of Soil Science, speaks of an incredible area of around 10 million hectares<sup>.18<\/sup>  <\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">In addition to the well-known herbicide Agent Orange, Agent Purple, Pink, White, Green and Blue were also used. The latter was mainly used against rice fields, as Agent Blue destroyed the rice harvest within hours. In total, around 80 million liters of herbicides were used against Vietnamese ecosystems<sup>.19<\/sup>  <\/p>\n<p>[\/vc_column_text][vc_single_image media=&#8221;19545&#8243; media_width_percent=&#8221;100&#8243; title=&#8221;Operation Ranch Hand &#8211; Photo of a mission in Vietnam&#8221;][vc_column_text]<\/p>\n<h4 style=\"text-align: justify;\"><b>Agent Orange<\/b><\/h4>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Agent Orange is probably the best known herbicide used by the Americans. It accounts for about 60 percent of the total amount of herbicides sprayed over Vietnam. This defoliant has a relatively short half-life (2-3 days), which is why it was sprayed several times in strategically important regions. As Agent Orange was patent-free and therefore cheaper than the other herbicides, it was favored by the Americans.   <\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">However, in addition to destroying the environment, the pesticide had a major side effect from which the Vietnamese population still suffers today: In order to meet the huge demand for the herbicide, the production process was accelerated by increasing the temperature by 3 &#8211; 5 percent during production. The herbicide was produced by the companies Dow and Monsanto. Due to the high demand and production speed, they could not guarantee the chemical purity of the herbicide. The increase in temperature during production led to an almost 3000-fold increase in TCDD, a dioxin in the herbicide. Dioxin is highly toxic to humans, causing cancer, severe disabilities and a high miscarriage rate<sup>.20<\/sup>    <\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Although the herbicide Agent Orange only has a relatively short half-life, the harmful dioxin in particular remains in the environment for much longer. On surfaces it has a half-life of 1 &#8211; 3 years, in humans 11 &#8211; 15 years, in soil 20 &#8211; 50 years and in water the half-life can even be up to 100 <sup>years21<\/sup>. The dioxin migrates up the food chain through cultivation (rice cultivation, fishing) of the previously sprayed areas and thus enters the human body.  <\/p>\n<h4><b>Agent Blue<\/b><\/h4>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">In addition to the targeted spraying of forests and mangroves, the Americans also used herbicides, in particular Agent Blue, against agricultural land to disrupt the enemy&#8217;s food supply. Recent studies show that the targeted spraying of rice-growing areas was a concerted CIA action of which the US population was unaware. The destruction of agricultural land mainly affected the civilian population, who suffered from severe malnutrition as a result.  <\/p>\n<p>[\/vc_column_text][\/vc_column][\/vc_row][vc_row][vc_column width=&#8221;1\/1&#8243;][vc_row_inner][vc_column_inner width=&#8221;1\/2&#8243;][vc_column_text]<\/p>\n<h4><b>The environmental damage caused<\/b><\/h4>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">It is almost impossible to describe what happens when 80 million liters of herbicides are sprayed over farmland and forests. The networks of animals and plants within sensitive ecosystems, such as the mangrove forests in Vietnam, are too numerous. Nevertheless, some studies have attempted to analyze the damage and classify it into different regions:  <\/p>\n<h5><b>Destroyed forests of the highlands in South Vietnam<\/b><\/h5>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Arthur Westing, a former professor at Windham College and, incidentally, a former US Marine, documented the damage to the forests in the South Vietnamese highlands as follows:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify;\">Around 50,000 hectares of forest were sprayed four or more times. These 50,000 hectares can be considered completely destroyed with a tree mortality rate of 80 &#8211; 100 percent. <\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify;\">1.3 million hectares of forest (12 percent of the area of South Vietnam) have been sprayed with herbicides at least 1 &#8211; 3 times and can be considered partially destroyed with a tree mortality rate of 10 &#8211; 50 percent<sup>.22<\/sup><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">A 2008 study counted 2.2 million hectares of forest that were defoliated during the Vietnam War<sup>.23<\/sup><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">The temporary death of these highland forests led to a series of chain reactions. Tropical rain, which occurs in these regions, washes the nutrient-rich soil from the defoliated areas into the rivers, leaving behind a barren and hard earth that is only suitable as a habitat for bamboo and some grasses. Even with intensive reforestation, it will take centuries to create a habitat as rich in species as it was before defoliation<sup>.24<\/sup> In these formerly densely forested habitats, biodiversity has also declined sharply in the animal kingdom. At the same time, not all areas are being restored to their original habitat, but are also being converted into agricultural land and settlement areas. The majority of forests appear to be lost forever.    <\/p>\n<p>[\/vc_column_text][\/vc_column_inner][vc_column_inner width=&#8221;1\/2&#8243;][vc_single_image media=&#8221;19551&#8243; caption=&#8221;yes&#8221; media_width_percent=&#8221;100&#8243; alignment=&#8221;center&#8221; border=&#8221;yes&#8221; title=&#8221;Map of herbicide use in Vietnam&#8221;][\/vc_column_inner][\/vc_row_inner][vc_column_text]<\/p>\n<h5 style=\"text-align: left;\"><b>Destroyed mangrove forests in South Vietnam<\/b><\/h5>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Due to their age, Vietnam&#8217;s mangrove forests are considered to be particularly complex ecosystems that live in a delicate balance between salt and fresh water. The roots of mangroves are partly buried in the water and partly deep in the mud. The resulting forest in the water provides a special habitat for numerous plants, algae, mussels, crustaceans, birds and many other species. Studies put the destruction of Vietnam&#8217;s mangrove forests by herbicides at over 124,000 hectares, more than 40 percent of the area colonized by mangroves in Vietnam<sup>.25<\/sup> The destruction was accompanied by a sharp decline in fish species and other marine life. Bird species also declined rapidly, as the mangrove forests serve as nurseries for many birds. Some of the destruction is considered irreversible, as the death of the mangroves also led to severe soil erosion. The mixture of salt and fresh water is disturbed and the water levels change. Mangrove areas are hundreds of years old and cannot simply be \u201cplanted\u201d. Grasses and low-growing plant species have also established themselves in these areas for the most part.        <\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">There are many initiatives to re-establish mangrove forests in Vietnam. This requires large investments and a lot of patience. Whether the original biodiversity can be restored remains questionable. In the past, UfU has been involved in the establishment of mangrove forests in Vietnam.   <\/p>\n<h5 style=\"text-align: left;\"><b>Effects of dioxin on animals<\/b><\/h5>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">The extent to which the dioxin sprayed by Agent Orange also poisons animals is controversial. Initial studies considered the effect to be negligible, but also pointed out that miscarriage rates and disabilities in the animal world are not the focus of scientific studies. However, there is much evidence to suggest that farm animals such as cattle, pigs and red deer have increased mortality and disease rates as a result of eating grass contaminated with dioxin<sup>.26<\/sup>  <\/p>\n<h4><b>Classification of the figures<\/b><\/h4>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">The figures cited in this article come from various scientific publications from different periods. With the exception of the study by Arthur Westing, which was published in 1983, the sources are exclusively from the 2000s. It is difficult to put an exact figure on how much forest, mangroves and animals were irretrievably lost as a result of the Vietnam War, and not only because it was 47 years ago. Rather, the loss of forest and nature in Vietnam depends on many factors.   <\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">As described above, forest defoliation has led to a downward spiral. Bamboo and grasses have taken the place of trees, leading to a further decline in biodiversity. Soil erosion, areas contaminated with dioxin and a not inconsiderable number of unexploded ordnance from the area bombings have prevented simple reforestation.  <\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">At the same time, Vietnam has experienced enormous economic and population growth in recent decades. Rice cultivation and timber production are key economic sectors in Vietnam. Due to these factors, many areas have not been restored to their original form, but are now used as settlement areas, agricultural land or for other purposes. As a result, Vietnam&#8217;s forest cover continued to decline even after the war. By 1980, the forest area in Vietnam had already fallen to 50 percent of the country&#8217;s surface area. By 1990, Vietnam&#8217;s forest area had fallen to 27 percent. In more recent times, however, Vietnam has made great efforts to reforest. Today, the forested area has returned to 46.5 percent<sup>.27<\/sup> However, this area is also used commercially for timber production. The extent to which the original biodiversity has been restored on these areas remains to be investigated.        <\/p>\n<p>[\/vc_column_text][vc_row_inner row_inner_height_percent=&#8221;0&#8243; overlay_alpha=&#8221;50&#8243; gutter_size=&#8221;3&#8243; border_color=&#8221;color-114895&#8243; border_style=&#8221;solid&#8221; shift_y=&#8221;0&#8243; z_index=&#8221;0&#8243; css=&#8221;.vc_custom_1664883834560{border-top-width: 2px !important;border-right-width: 2px !important;border-bottom-width: 2px !important;border-left-width: 2px !important;padding-top: 5px !important;padding-right: 5px !important;padding-bottom: 5px !important;padding-left: 5px !important;}&#8221;][vc_column_inner width=&#8221;1\/1&#8243;][vc_column_text css=&#8221;.vc_custom_1664878154742{border-top-width: 2px !important;border-right-width: 2px !important;border-bottom-width: 2px !important;border-left-width: 2px !important;padding-top: 10px !important;padding-right: 10px !important;padding-bottom: 10px !important;padding-left: 10px !important;}&#8221;]<b>List of sources:<\/b><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>Statista (2021), Losses by warring party in the Vietnam War 1955-1975 Wolfgang Lohbeck (2005), Environment and armed conflict: Dilemma without a way out?<\/li>\n<li>Greg Bankoff (2010), A Curtain of Silence &#8211; Asia&#8217;s Faune in the Cold War<\/li>\n<li>Statista (1970), Amount of bombs dropped in the Vietnam War 1965-1970<\/li>\n<li>Deutschlandfunk (2008), Bitter balance of the war<\/li>\n<li>MDR (2021), The Vietnam War-the most important dates<\/li>\n<li>Edward Miguel, G\u00e9rard Roland (2005), The Long Run Impact of Bombing Vietnam<\/li>\n<li>Statista (1970), Amount of bombs dropped in the Vietnam War 1965-1970<\/li>\n<li>Wolfgang Lohbeck (2005), Environment and armed conflict: a dilemma with no way out?<\/li>\n<li>Wolfgang Lohbeck (2005), Environment and armed conflict: a dilemma with no way out?<\/li>\n<li>Arthur H. Westing (1983), The Environmental Aftermath of Warfare in Viet Nam<\/li>\n<li>Greg Bankoff (2010), A Curtain of Silence &#8211; Asia&#8217;s Fauna in the Cold War<\/li>\n<li>Edward Miguel, G\u00e9rard Roland (2005), The Long Run Impact of Bombing Vietnam<\/li>\n<li>National Museum of the United States Air Force, BLU-82\/B-Factsheet<\/li>\n<li>Arthur H. Westing (1983), The Environmental Aftermath of Warfare in Viet Nam<\/li>\n<li>Giovanni Chiarini (2022), Ecocide: From the Vietnam War to international criminal jurisdiction? Procedural Issues in between environmental science, climate change and law. <\/li>\n<li>Zierler, David (2008), Inventing Ecocide: Agent Orange, Antiwar Protest and Environmental Destruction in Vietnam<\/li>\n<li>Arthur H. Westing (1983), The Environmental Aftermath of Warfare in Viet Nam<\/li>\n<li>Olson, K.R. and Morton, L.W. (2019), Long-Term Fate of Agent Orange and Dioxin TCDD Contaminated Soils and Sediments in Vietnam Hotspots.<\/li>\n<li>Greg Bankoff (2010), A Curtain of Silence &#8211; Asia&#8217;s Fauna in the Cold War<\/li>\n<li>Zierler, David (2008), Inventing Ecocide: Agent Orange, Antiwar Protest and Environmental Destruction in Vietnam<\/li>\n<li>Olson, K.R. and Morton, L.W. (2019), Long-Term Fate of Agent Orange and Dioxin TCDD Contaminated Soils and Sediments in Vietnam Hotspots.<\/li>\n<li>Arthur H. Westing (1983), The Environmental Aftermath of Warfare in Viet Nam<\/li>\n<li>Zierler, David (2008), Inventing Ecocide: Agent Orange, Antiwar Protest and Environmental Destruction in Vietnam<\/li>\n<li>H. Patricia Hynes (2016) The Legacy of Agent Orange in Vietnam<\/li>\n<li>Arthur H. Westing (1983), The Environmental Aftermath of Warfare in Viet Nam<\/li>\n<li>Greg Bankoff (2010), A Curtain of Silence &#8211; Asia&#8217;s Faune in the Cold War<\/li>\n<li>Federal Statistical Office, basic table on forest area<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>[\/vc_column_text][\/vc_column_inner][\/vc_row_inner][vc_row_inner][vc_column_inner width=&#8221;1\/3&#8243;][vc_button button_color=&#8221;color-101991&#8243; radius=&#8221;btn-round&#8221; border_width=&#8221;0&#8243; link=&#8221;url:https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ufu.de%2Fufu-informationen%2Fnatur-im-kriegsfall%2F|title:The%20role%20of%20nature%20in%20the%20event%20of%20war|&#8221;]Previous article[\/vc_button][\/vc_column_inner][vc_column_inner width=&#8221;1\/3&#8243;][vc_button button_color=&#8221;color-116455&#8243; radius=&#8221;btn-round&#8221; border_width=&#8221;0&#8243; link=&#8221;url:https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ufu.de%2Fufu-informationen%2F|target:_blank|&#8221;]Back to the issues[\/vc_button][\/vc_column_inner][vc_column_inner width=&#8221;1\/3&#8243;][vc_button button_color=&#8221;color-127094&#8243; radius=&#8221;btn-round&#8221; border_width=&#8221;0&#8243; link=&#8221;url:https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ufu.de%2Fufu-informationen%2Fkrieg-vs-umwelt%2F|title:War%20vs.%20nature|&#8221;]Next article in this issue[\/vc_button][\/vc_column_inner][\/vc_row_inner][\/vc_column][\/vc_row]<\/p>\n<\/div>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>[vc_row][vc_column width=&#8221;1\/1&#8243;][vc_row_inner][vc_column_inner column_width_percent=&#8221;100&#8243; gutter_size=&#8221;3&#8243; back_color=&#8221;color-861536&#8243; overlay_alpha=&#8221;50&#8243; shift_x=&#8221;0&#8243; shift_y=&#8221;0&#8243; shift_y_down=&#8221;0&#8243; z_index=&#8221;0&#8243; medium_width=&#8221;0&#8243; mobile_width=&#8221;0&#8243; width=&#8221;1\/1&#8243;][vc_column_text] UfU Information | Issue 6 &#8211; October [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":18,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-143167","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"acf":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.ufu.de\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/143167","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.ufu.de\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.ufu.de\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.ufu.de\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/18"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.ufu.de\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=143167"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/www.ufu.de\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/143167\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.ufu.de\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=143167"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}